例子:       bridd→bird               hros→horse  
19. Affix loss的特征或现象
 ⑴Morphemes wound change a word from one lexical category to another
⑵The drop of the causative verb formation rule.使意动词的丢失:
  如-yan加在adj word后可变成causative verb.
 ⑶The loss of gender and case markings
20.the most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gender and case markings.Old english had a gender-marking system has 3genders:
Masculine , feminine and neuter.阳性、阴性和中性词。
如：stan(stone) 阳性； gief(gift)阴性；deor(wild animal)中性
21.语音的移位大多数是因为influence of foreign languages.其中french影响最大，如-able,-ment,-ize.
22. Rule addition的特征或现象
⑴Particle movement,古英语没有此现象，现代英语有
⑵Auxiliary verbs and main verbs的区分,16世纪前没有此现象
 如： 助动词疑问词interrogative sentences的前面
23.在句法规则的增加中，old english period is known as the Particle movement rule,for modern english showes the particle of some phrasal verbs like”throw out”,”turn-off”to postpone to the right of the object.
如John thew out the ball through the door/John thew the ball out through the door.
在古代英语中，没有particle移位现象。
24.Languages vary in the order of the subject,the verb and the object.the two typical ways to represent distinction of subject and object nouns are through extensive case marking and rigid word order.
25.在古英语中，句子的顺序是SVO,VSO,SOV和OSV,The loss of case contrasts was compensated for with the adoption of the consistent SVO order.
26.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its Vocabulary.
27.French loan words did not always replace Old english words,but in many instances existed alongside of the native English vocabulary.sometimes, french loan words were used in conjunction with native English words to create Contrast.
28.词汇的增加 borrowing 和word formation.
 The most obvious way in which modern english differs lexically from old english is the number of Borrowed words from other languages.
29.Old english contained a number of morphological rules that are extinct.
例子：大部分是derivational affixes.
-baere , lust(“pleasure”)+baere→lustbaere(“agreeable”)-bora,   mund(“protection”)+bora→(“protector”)During the Renaisance,many latin and Greek words became part of the educated egnlish lexicon
30.New words have made their entry into english via word formation rules.
例子   Compounding: sailboat, big-mouth, cross-cultural, three-year-old
Derviation :uglification, finalize,
Acronym formation: radar(radio detecting and ranging)、CD-ROM(compat disk of read-only memory)、laser、UNESCO
Blending : smog(smoke+fog)  brunch(breafast+lunch)  motel(motor+hotel)
Abbreviation :TV(televistion)  Dr(doctor ) ft(foor or feet) N.Y(New York)
Clipping :gym(gymnasium) sci fi(science fiction) e-mail、
phys ed(physical education)、hi-fi(high fidelity高保真)    
Back-formation ：typewriter(typewriter)  edit (editor)
Coinage : Kleenex (soft cleansing tissue)  kodak 、xerox(photo copier)
※语义的变化Semantic Change 这一节非常重要
32.It’s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among langauges, classifying related languages into language families,and reconstructin their ancestral languages.what follows is a very brief account focusing on how historical linguists established genetic relationships of languages,and in particular,the Indo-Europeean language family.
33.至今世界上已有over five thousand langauges are spoken.
chinese :over 1.2billion native speakers
Danish : less than 5million native speakers
English: fewer than chinese,400million
The four thousand languages have developed from their historical roots.
To today,about thirty language families have been documented in historical linguistic literature.
34.To identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree,and to reconstruct the protolanguage,the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
35. A language family is established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction.
36.Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages.
37.语义的变化类型   ※
41.With the application of the comparative method,Persia,northern part of india were able to reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved.
42.判断题syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than follows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription.
43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period.
44.Bilingual,pidin＆creole speakers contribute to formation of新语言变体
三、问答题
1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language change
All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar.
2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change
Sound assimilation,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关
⑴语音同化Sound assimilation
Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes.
⑵规则简化Rule simplification
 It’s a type of spontaneous morphological rule change involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english.
⑶内部借用Internal Borrowing
It’s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language’s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another.
⑷规则细化  Elaboration
It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
⑸社会因素Social triggers
⑹文化转移Cultural transmission
⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’s approximation toward the adult grammar.
A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.
Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics
一、定义
1.言语社区Speech Community
It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms.
2.社会方言Socialect
A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class.
3.语域Register
A functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned.
4.标准语Standard Language
A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.
5.通用语Lingua Franca
A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects.
6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者