    Instead of just using textbooks to reach the words and structures to the students, the teacher should try to introduce an extensive reading scheme whenever possible to encourage leaners to read more after class.
    This automatic, rapid, and accurate process of word recognition should not be confused with the strategy of slow, letter by letter, or syllable by syllable sounding out of words.
    Possessing a large sight vocabulary is a necessary but not sufficient condition for effective reading comprehension.

6.    Principles for teaching reading:
    The selected text and attached tasks should be accessible to the students. (inaccessible one does not help but cause frustration)
    Tasks should be given in advance. Preferably, tasks should motivate students.
    Tasks should be designed to encourage selective and intelligent reading for the main meaning rather than test students’ understanding of trivial(通俗的) details.
    Tasks should help develop students reading skills and rather than test their reading comprehension.
    Teacher should help students not merely to cope with one particular text in class but to develop their reading strategies and reading ability in general.
    Provide enough guidance and assistance at the beginning to help students read and develop reading strategies but gradually withdraw his/her guidance.

7.    Models for teaching reading:
    Bottom-up model: reading comprehension is based on the mastery of new words and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice.
    Top-down model: one’s background knowledge plays a pore important role than new words and new structures in reading comprehension. So, teachers should teach background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page.
    Interactive model: reading process does not only involve the printed page but also the reader’s knowledge of the language in general. Our brain receives visual information and at the same time reconstruct the meaning the writer had in mind when he wrote the text.

8.    Pre-reading while-reading and post-reading activities:
    Pre-reading activities:
The purpose of pre-reading activities is to facilitate while-reading activities.
    Predicting: get his mind closer to the theme of the text to be read
    Based on the title
    Based on the vocabulary
    Based on T/F questions 
    Setting the scene: be familiar with the culture and social background knowledge.
    Skimming: reading quickly to get the gist.
    Ask general questions
    Provide 3-4statements and one of them represents the main idea. Ask students to read the text and decide which statement is the correct one.
    Scanning: read to get specific information
Provide subtitles for different parts of a text and asks students to put them in right place
When conducting scanning activities, the teacher should bear in mind the following things:
    Set a time limit
    Give clear instructions for the task
    Wait until 70% of the students finish
    Make clear how you are going to get feedback
    Make sure that the answers to the scanning questions are scattered throughout the text rather than clustered at one place
    while-reading activities:
    Transition device: Information in plain text does not facilitate information retention. Use visual form, it will be more effective.
    It is very important for students to finish the tasks during the reading process, instead of after they finish reading.
    Purpose of transition device
    Focus attention on the main meaning of the text.
    Be able to simplify sophisticated input so that it becomes the basis for output
    Allow students to perform tasks while they are reading
    Highlight the structural organization of the text
    Involve students in clearly defined reading tasks
    Precede one step at a time
    When a TD is done, use it as a basis for further oral/written language
    Reading comprehension questions:
    Question of literal comprehension
    Question involving reorganization or reinterpretation
    Question for inference
    Question for evacuation or appreciation (what writer is going to do and how successful he is in achieving his purpose)
    Question for personal response (reader’s reaction to the content)
    Understanding reference
    Making inference
    post-reading activities:
Post-reading tasks should provide the students with opportunities to relate what they have read to what they have already know or what they feel.
    Discuss question
    Reproducing the text: (retell the story)
    Role play
    Gap-filling
    Discussion
    Retelling
    Writing   
 
Unit 12 Teaching writing
1.    A communicative approach to writing
    Ask students to write something they want to write and that they are familiar with.
    Their work is intended to be read by someone. They should have writing audience.

2.    Problems in writing tasks:
    They are mainly accuracy-based.
    They are designed to practice a certain target structures.
    There is inefficient preparation before their writing.
    There is no sense of audience.
    There is no sense of authenticity.
    Students are given ideas to express rather than being invited to create their own ideas.
    There no opportunity for creative writing, particular for expressing unusual or original ideas.
    Many of them are test oriented.

3.    The main procedures of process writing include:
    Creating a motivation to write
    Brainstorming (students work together to brainstorm ideas for writing)
    Mapping (a diagram or an outline can be used to do this; mapping helps students to select from those ideas)
    Freewriting (All they need to do is to put ideas on paper; it can help students build fluency in writing.)
    Outlining (the outline usually illustrate the structure of their writing.)
    Drafting (the development of ideas is more important than grammatical structures)
    Editing
    Peer editing and self-editing
    Not simply to find errors about one’s writing but to negotiate meaning and improving writing
    Suggestions + praise
    Revising (teachers guide students to make improvements in both organization and contents both on either self-editing and peer editing)
    Proofreading (students should be guided to read their writing again carefully form any mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, or capitalization.
    Conferencing (teachers face to face talking with students about the weakness and strength of their writing.)

4.    Principles that can motivate students to write
    Make topic of writing as close as possible to students’ life
    Leave students enough time for creativity and imagination
    Prepare students well before writing
    Encourage collaborative group writing as well as individual writing
    Provide opportunities for students to share their writings
    Provide constructive and positive feedback
    Treat students’ errors strategically
    Give students a sense of achievements from time to time
 
Unit 13 integrated skills
1.    Two ways if integrating skills: