By clapping hands or using an arm movements as if conducting music.
    Use the voice:
Raise the voice to indicate stress
    Use the blackboard:
Highlight the stress parts by underlining them or writing them on the blackboard.
 
Unit7. Teaching grammar
1.    Different ways to presenting grammar
    The deductive method
Relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing
Disadvantages:
    It teaches grammar as an isolate one
    Little attention is paid to meaning
    Practice is more mechanical
Advantages:
    It can be successful with selected and motivated students.
    It could save time when students are confronted with grammar rule which is complex but which has to learn.
    The inductive method
    The teacher provide students with authentic language date and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any form of explicit explanation.
    Students are to apply the newly presented structure to produce sentences with given visual aids or verbal prompts.
    The teacher may elicit the grammar rule from the students.
    The guided discovery method
    Students are induced to discover the rules by themselves but carefully guided and assisted by the teacher.

2.    Implicit knowledge and explicit knowledge
    Implicit knowledge: knowledge that is unconsciously existed in our mind, which we can make use of automatically without making any effort.
    Explicit knowledge: our conscious knowledge about the language.

3.    Successful practice
    Pre-learning
Practice is more effective when new language is clearly perceived and taken into short-term memory by the leaners.
    Volume and repetition
The more language the leaners are exposed to or perceived the more they are likely to learn.
    Success-orientation:
    Heterogeneity(异质性)
Practice should be able to elicit different sentences and generate different levels of answers from different learners.
    Teacher assistance
    Interest

4.    Grammar practice:
    Mechanical practice
    Substitution drills
Mrs. Green has the largest house in town.
(clean house/ green lawn/ pretty garden)
    Transformation drills
Change the following sentence into past tense.
Now he lives in London. (last year. Paris)
    Meaningful/communicative practice
Rank the items on the left column according to the listed on the top.
    cheap    healthy    tasty    Important
Beer               
Water               
Fruit               
cigarettes               
Eg. I think beer is cheaper than fruit.

5.    Using prompts for practice:
    Using picture prompts
    Using mimes (role play) or gestures as prompts
    Using information sheet as prompts
    Using key phrase or key words as prompts
    Using chained phrases for story telling.

 
Unit 8 teaching vocabulary
1.    What does knowing a word involve?
    Knowing its pronunciation and stress
    Knowing its spelling and grammatical properties
    Knowing its meaning
    How and when to use it to express the intended meaning

2.    According to Hedge, vocabulary learning involves at least two aspect of meaning:
    Understanding denotation and connotative meaning:
    Denotation meaning
It refer to those words that we use to label things as regards real objects, such as a name or a sign.
    Connotative meaning   
It refers to the attitudes or emotions of a language user in choosing a word and influence of those on the listener or reader’s interpretation of the word.
For example, animal itself has a connotative meaning often related to friendship and loyalty.
    Understanding the sense relations among words
    Collocations
It is believed that teaching word collocations is a more effective way than just teaching one single word at a time.
    Synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms
    Receptive/passive and productive/active vocabulary

3.    Ways of presenting vocabulary:
    Try to provide a visual or physical demonstration whenever possible
    Provide a verbal context to demonstrate meaning
    Use synonyms and antonyms and hyponyms to explain meaning
    Use word formation rules and common affixes to build up new lexical knowledge.
    Pre-fabricated formulaic items: to teach vocabulary in chunks. Chunks refer to a group of words that go together to form meaning.

4.    Ways of consolidating vocabulary:
    Labelling
    Spot the difference
    Describe and draw
    Play a game
    Use word series
    Word bingo
    Word association
    Find synonyms and antonyms
    Categories

5.    Developing vocabulary learning strategy
    Review regularly
    Guess meaning from the context
    Organize vocabulary effectively
    Use a dictionary
Monolingual dictionary should be encouraged than bi-lingual dictionary
    Students should be guided constantly to self-evacuate the effectiveness of the strategy.

 
Unit 9 teaching listening
1.    Listening can be more difficult than reading because:
    Different speaker produce different sounds in different ways. (Different dialects, and accents, stress, rhythms, intonations……)
    The listener has little or no control over the speed of the input of spoken material;
    Spoken material is often heard only once and in most cases, we cannot go back and listen again as we can when we read.
    The listener cannot pause to work out the meaning of the hard material as can be done when reading.
    Speed is more likely to be distorted by the media which transmit sounds or the background noise that can make it difficult to hear clearly.
    The listener sometimes has to deal simultaneously with other task while listening, such as formal note-taking, writing down directions or messages from telephone calls, or operating while listening to instructions.

2.    Characters of listening characters:
    Spontaneity: people speaking spontaneously and informally without rehearsing what they are going to say ahead of time.
    Context: the situation helps us predict what we are going to hear.
    Visual clues: most of the time, we can see the person we are listening to. (facial expressions, gestures, and other body language)
    Listener’s response: we can interrupt the speakers and ask for repetition or clarification.
    Speaker’s adjustment. (The speaker can adjust the way of speaking according to the listener’s reaction.)

3.    Many published textbooks have tended to focus on listening test rather than focusing on improving students’ listening performance. This approach has two problems:
    It does not give students opportunities to develop listening skills with other skills.
    Listening comprehension questions only test students’ level of comprehension but do not train students how to listening or how to develop effective listening strategies.

4.    Principles for listening:
    Focus on process: people must do many things to process information that they are receiving. It is very important to design tasks which can show how well students comprehend the listening material.