68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?
   Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
69.  Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?
    Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements  “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.

Chapter 2：Phonology                     
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.  
2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.  
3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.  
4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.  
5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.  
6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.  
7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.  
8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.  
9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.  
10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.  
11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.  
12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.  
13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.  
14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.  
15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.  
16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.  
17.  A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.  
18.  When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.  
19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.  
20.  Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.  
22．A ____ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.  
23. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.  
24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.  
25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p____ of articulation.  
26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.  <![endif]>
27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.  
28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____ rules.  
29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.  
30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.  
31．P______ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.  
32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.  
33． T____ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.  <![endif]>
34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
35． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.
A. mouth   B. lips   C. tongue   D. vocal cords  
36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.
A. voiceless    B. voiced    C. vowel     D. consonantal
37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.
 A. /z/        B. /d/      C. /k/    D./b/  
38． The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.
 A. identical    B. same    C. exactly alike     D. similar  
39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.
A. in phonemic contrast        B. in complementary distribution
C. the allophones             D. minimal pair  
40．The sound /f/ is _________________.
 A. voiced palatal affricate             B. voiced alveolar stop
 C. voiceless velar fricative            D. voiceless labiodental fricative   
41.  A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.  
A. back         B. central    C. front     D. middle  
42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.
A. phonetic components    B. immediate constituents
C. suprasegmental features            D. semantic features  
43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value.  It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
A. phone         B. sound    C. allophone     D. phoneme  
44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.
A. phones       B. sounds    C. phonemes     D. allophones  <![endif]>
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology       46. phoneme           47.allophone 
48. international phonetic alphabet     
49. intonation        50. phonetics       51. auditory phonetics
52. acoustic phonetics    53. phone     54. phonemic contrast 
55. tone             56. minimal pair
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:
57.  Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
58.  What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
59.  What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
60.  Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
61.  In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l.T    2.F    3.F    4.F    5.T    6.T    7.F   8.F    9.T    10.F
11.F  12.T   13.F   14.F   15.F   16. F   17. T   18. F  19. T  20. T
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. Aspiration  22.Articulatory  23.  bilabial   24. tongue   25. place
26. stop    27. Suprasegmental  28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation
31. Phonology   32. oral   33. Tone   34. sentence
III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
35.C    36.A    37.B    38.D    39.A    40.D    41.C    42.C    43.D 44.D
IV. Define the terms below:
45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. 
49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages
51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.
52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.
53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.
54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:
57.  Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?
1)  In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.
2)  In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.
3)  Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.
58.  What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?
1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.
2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.
3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.
4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.
59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?
    They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
60.  Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.
1)   The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and import. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.
2)  The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”  for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.
3)  English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.
61.  In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?
A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for other results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.
Chapter 3：Morphology  
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.
3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.
4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.
5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.
6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.
7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.
9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.
10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.
12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.
13. B______ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d____ affixes.
15. D______ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.
16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.
17. C______ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.
18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m____ rules.
19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d____ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.
20. A s____ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: