例子: Accuse….of     charge…. with      rebuke….for         sour milk
       Rotten tomatoes  addled eggs       rancid bacon or butter
7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word with several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence.
8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things.
9.Every utterance occurs in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation.
10.the contextulist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.
11                 Homophones—when two words are identical in sound
                             Rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
Homonymy Homographs—when two words are identical in spelling             
   分类                      Bow v. /bow n. tear v./ tear n  lead v./lead n.
                   Complete homonyms—when two words are identical in both spelling 
                            and sound.例子Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v.
12.            (1)Gradable antonyms分级反义词(a matter of degree)
                     例子 Old—middle-aged—young;   hot-warm-cold
Antonym (2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between
分类         two extremes例子    Alive—dead;     male—female; 
               (3) Relational opposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)
                 father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences
X is synonymous with Y.
X entails Y.
X presupposes Y.
X is a contradiction.
X is semantically anomalous.
14. Analysis of meaning意义的分析
(1)Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning对词汇成分的分析
(2) Predication analysis—a way to analyze sentence meaning对句子意义的分析
  (1)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
   The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features.
   一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。
   This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.
   这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。
   Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.
加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。
15.the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.
   Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning.
16.Selectional restrictions---
   Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules.
17.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication------
   Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative.
   Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates.
   述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。
   An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.
  论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。
18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument).
19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments.
20.The analysis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter.
三、问答题
1.how are sense and reference related?
  Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized.
  Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality.
2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？
 In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.
3.what’s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?
什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?
Grammaticality---the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence.
A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all
Chapter 6     pragmatics
一 、定义
1.语境Context
  The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
2.言语行为理论Speech act theory
It’s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it’s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. it aims to answer the question ”what do we do when using language?”