51.   How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values?
   In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y
e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life.
Y: He never married all his life.
Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y
e.g.  X: John is married.
      Y: John is a bachelor.
52.   According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.
    According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups.
i.   Dialectal synonyms
They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. For examples:
           British English            American English
             autumn                    fall
               lift                     elevator
Then dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect.
ii. Stylistic synonyms
They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example:
           old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent
           chap, pal, friend, companion
iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator”  and  “accomplice”  are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act.
iv. Collocational synonyms
They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms
Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. "
53.  What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ?
  One of the oldest was the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context.
For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs:
The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.
(seal meaning an aquatic mammal)
The seal could not be found. The king became worried.
(seal meaning the king's stamp)
    Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
  l. F   2. F  3.T   4.T   5.F   6.F   7.F  8.F   9.F   10.T   11.T   12.F   
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
13.  Pragmatics    14. semantics    15. context    16. utterance    17. abstract
18.Constatives    19. Performatives  20. locutionary  21. illocutionary 
22. commissive  23. expressive   24. quantity
III.             There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
25. A    26.C    27.D    28.B      29.C      30.B
31.A    32.C    33.B    34.C      35. A      36.D
IV. Define the terms below:
37.  pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.   
38.  Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situ-ation in which linguistic communication is taking place.       
39.  utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
40.  sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.    
41.  Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifi-able ;      
42.  Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.  
43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonol-ogy.    
44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.  
45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:
47.  How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?
    Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of mean-ing . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
48.  How does a sentence differ from an utterance?
    A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance de-pends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utter-ances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.
49.  How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?
    A sentence meaning is of-ten considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact state-ment, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de-pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
50.  Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
    A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonol-ogy. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.  For example:
You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.
The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.
The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully per-formed .
51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.
1)      representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:
         (I swear) I have never seen the man before.

         (I state) the earth is a globe.
2)  directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some-thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, or-dering are all specific instances of this class.
        For example:
    Open the window!
3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:
             I promise to come.
         I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
4)  expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:
            I'm sorry for the mess I have made.
5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. For example:
I now declare the meeting open.
52.  What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?
The maxim of quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
2. The maxim of quality
1. Do not say what you believe to be false.
2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
2. The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
The maxim of manner
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .
4. Be orderly.
53.  How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?
         A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?
         B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
    This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implica-ture as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.
       A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?
       B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.
    This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying some-thing that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of qual-ity. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.
           A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?
           B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?
    This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. Thus B is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.
              A: Shall we get something for the kids?
              B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.
    This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pro-nouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational implicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.

Chapter 7： Historical Linguistics
I.  Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1.  One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages.
2.  Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.
3.  The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
4.  Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
5.  In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases.
6.  In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.
7.  A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.
8.  In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language.
9.  The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.
10.    The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
11.    In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.
12.    The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.
13.    Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.
14.    “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.
15.    “fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation.
16.    Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.