A.  there was only one language area in the left brain
B.   there was no language area in the left brain
C.  there was one language area in the right brain
D.  there was more than one language area in the left brain.
35.  __________ is the language center primarily responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.
A. The motor area               B. Broca’s area
C. Wernicke’s area              D. The angular gyrus
36.  The neurobiologist Eric Lenneberg is a major proponent of the idea that ________.
A.  there is a distinction between acquisition and learning
B.   there is a critical period for language acquisition
C.  language influences thinking
D.  there is interrelationship between language and thinking
37.  The case of Genie shows that ____________.
A.   language can not be acquired at all after the critical period.
B.   Cerebral plasticity after puberty is still high enough to for a successful mastery of a new language.
C.   the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period
D.   the language learning should be done as early as possible.
IV Explain the following terms:
38. psycholinguistics                39. brain lateralization 
40. dichotic listening                41. Broca's area
42. angular gyms                   43. cerebral plasticity   
44. linguistic determinism           45. sub vocal speech 
46. cerebral cortex                 47. linguistic lateralization
48. right ear advantage             49. critical period hypothesis
50. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis         51. linguistic relativism
52. overt thought                  53. intrapersonal communication   
54. interpersonal communication
V. Answer the following questions:
55.  What are the biological foundations of language?
56.  What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemi-sphere?
57.  What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?
58.  What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?
59.  How are language and thought related to each other?

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1.        F  2.T  3.T   4.T   5.T   6. F   7.F   8.F   9.T   10.T
II. II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:
11. Psycholinguistics  12. cortex   13. hemispheres   14. lateralization 
15. genetically 16. Motor  17. arbitrary  18. sub-vocal, overt 19.relativism
20. critical  21. determinism
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
22.A    23.A    24.C    25.D    26.D    27.B    28.C    29.D    30.A
31.C    32. A    33. B    34. D   35. D    36. B    37. C
IV Explain the following terms:
38. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind.
39. brain lateralization:   The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a    particular hemisphere of the brain is called brain lateralization.
40.dichotic listening: a research technique which has been used to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would be that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.
41. Broca's area : It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, which is  vital to language. This area is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeon and anatomist.
42. angular gyms: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke' s area. The angular gyrus  is the language center re-sponsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice ver-sa. This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written lan-guage , all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.
43. cerebral plasticity: Ac-cording to Lenneberg, prior to the end of the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called cerebral plasticity .
44. linguistic determinism: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined by the structure of their native language.
45. subvocal speech: a term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other.
46. cerebral cortex : the outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside.
47. linguistic lateralization: It refers the brain’s neurological specialization for language.
48.right ear advantage: The speech signals presented in the right ear goes directly to the left brain, while the speech signals in the left ear must first go to the right hemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left side of the brain for processing. Since the speech signals in the left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer time before processing than a linguistic signal received through the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This pheno广告网址n is called the right ear advantage.
49. critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one' s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily,ftly, and without explicit instruction.
50.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.
51.linguistic relativism: Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, relative to their linguistic back-ground, hence the notion of linguistic relativism .
52.  overt thought: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard speech as "overt thought.”
53. intrapersonal communication: It means that language users use language to facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.
54.interpersonal communication: It means language users use language to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another, or to control each other' s behavior.
V. Answer the following questions:
55.  What are the biological foundations of language?
  Of all organisms, human beings are the only spontaneous cre-ators and users of highly sophisticated languages that permit the communica-tion of a wide range of knowledge and ideas. Evidently, our linguistic ability does not depend primarily on the struc-ture of our vocal cords, for other mammals also have vocal cords. Human linguistic ability largely depends, instead, on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. As far as is currently known, human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. This has led to the belief that human language is biologically, or more exactly, neurologically, based.
56. What are the major mental functions under the control of each hemi-sphere?
    Psychological research suggests that both hemispheres perform important mental functions and they differ only in the manner in which they treat incoming stimuli. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemisphere more analytically.
Brain lateralization for major mental functions under the control of each hemisphere is given as follows:
        (1) Left hemisphere             Right hemisphere
     language and speech     perception of nonlinguistic sounds       
     analytic reasoning        holistic reasoning
     temporal ordering        visual and spatial skills
     reading and writing       recognition of patterns
     calculation              recognition of musical melodies
   associative thought
    Because each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is accurate to think of the hemispheres as complementarily spe-cialized .
57.  What can we do by means of dichotic listening tests?
    Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa. A basic assumption, thus, would be that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere. By means of dichotic listening tests, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli processed by the individual hemispheres.
  Dichotic listening test can show that the left hemisphere is not superior for process-ing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of the view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.
58.  What is the safe conclusion from Genie's case?
A safe conclusion from Genie' s case is that the lan-guage faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.
59.  How are language and thought related to each other?
    Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "subvocal speech”, and speech as "overt thought. In such a case, speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.

 
Chapter 10：Language Acquisition
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:  
1.  L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes.
2.  The capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.
3.  All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language.
4.  Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar.
5.  Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.
6.  Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages.
7.  Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.
8.  Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development.
9.  Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech.
10.    In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful.
11.    For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults.
12.    The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best.
13.    Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be.
14.    Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.
15.    Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input.
16.    A child’s babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.
17.    In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child’s first year.
18.    Children’s two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.
19.    Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds.
20.    Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end.
II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:
21.    The first language a____________ refers to the development of a first or native language.
22.    According to a n__________ view of language acquisition, humans are quipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically prewired to learn the songs of their species.
23.    A caretaker speech, also called m______ or b______, is the type of modified speech typically addressed to young children.
24.    B_________ learning theory suggested that a child’s verbal behaviour was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following response.
25.    Children’s one-word utterances are also called h__________ sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.
26.    The early multiword utterances of children lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories, they are often referred to as t__________ speech.
27.    A___________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.
28.    The C________ Analysis was founded on the belief that it was possible, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language systems, to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.
29.    The language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA is known as i_________.
30.    Learners subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language t___________.
31.    Motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner’s overall goal or orientation. I_________ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional and i________ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the one that can best complete the statement:
32.   In first language acquisition, imitation plays _________.
   A. a minor role                     B. a significant role
   C. a basic role                      D. no rule  
33. Linguists have found that for the vast majority of children, language development occurs _____________.
A.   with much imitation
B.   with little conscious instruction
C.  with much correction from their parents
D.  with little linguistic input  
34. The development of linguistic skills involves the acquisition of ____ rules rather than the mere memorization of words and sen-tences .
       A. cultural                       B. grammatical
       C. behaviour                 D. pragmatic
35. ____ has been found to occur usually in children' s pronunciation or reporting of the truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.
         A. Punishment                B. Instruction
         C. Reinforcement             D. Imitation
36. According to the _______, the acquisition of a second language involves, and is dependent on, the acquisition of the culture of the target language community.